ECAS 2013

This paper explores the nature of mining settlements in Ghana with the aim of contributing to debates regarding the patterns, processes and challenges of mine-induced urbanization. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative data collected in three gold mining settlements of differing size, Obuasi, Prestea and Kenyasi, it examines the history and development of the settlements including the timing and nature of in-and out-migration, the changing physical structure, and the evolving economic base. The experiences of a range of inhabitants are analysed including their views on the advantages and disadvantages of living in mining settlements and where they feel most at home. The paper shows how in the settlements studied, large- and small-scale mining are inextricably interlinked hence mining settlements cannot be characterised as being linked to one or the other type of mining. Mining activities clearly stimulate in-situ urbanisation in the form of physical structures, economic activities and service provision. Whilst some common characteristics of mining settlements can be identified, there are also clear differences with each settlement developing distinctive characteristics related to a range of factors including the level of mining activities, in/out migration, the location, and the availability of other income-generating opportunities. Strong social relations and an associated attachment to place develop within mining settlements which, along with the development of alternative income-generating activities, results in the settlements outliving the mining activities. To conclude, the paper argues that as well as considering in-situ urbanization, it is important to recognise that mining activities also stimulate urbanization elsewhere.

Since the revitalization of the mining sector in Ghana as part of the Economic Recovery Program in 1987, Ghana witnessed a tremendous boom in the level of production, economic growth, the increase of foreign direct investment, and the increase in formal employment. However, as a result of privatization and deregulation, many nearby mining communities, most of which rely on farming as a form of livelihood, have been affected by the negative environmental impact of large-scale mining, particularly large-scale gold mining. Without a rigorous state regulatory framework to enforce corporate accountability on issues such as resettling communities for mining purposes, proper compensation for environmental catastrophes and pollution and decommissioning procedures, many farming communities near the mines have inherited the negative environmental externalities of mining whilst receiving little of the positive benefits such as employment.

Based on fieldwork conducted in the three mining communities of Nhyiaeso, Kokotenten, and Dokyiwaa situated near the AngloGold Ashanti mine in Obuasi, I will evaluate the impact of large-scale gold mining on local communities from the Environmental Justice theory. Using Environmental Justice as an extension of the theory of communitarian justice, I will explore the distributive, procedural, recognition-based, and participatory aspects of justice and injustice. I will also analyze how people in these communities, affected by mining, frame their perceived grievances and exclusion from the benefits of gold mining.

The combination of increasing population and expansion of needs imposed by consumer society has triggered an increase in the number of projects such as roads, dams and mines. Many of these projects lead to the displacement of populations which, voiceless, are taken to other locations through forced resettlements, thus becoming "development refugees".

In region of Tete, Mozambique, the discovery of one of the largest reserves of coal has led to a mass resettlement process that has affected thousands of people and will continue in the next years.

The World Bank contends that it should be ensured that resettled populations have their living conditions improved. The current paper analyses, trough quality of life indicators, the resettlement made by the mining company Vale in Moatize, Tete province, between the years of 2006 and 2011.

Although it is still very early to tell whether the quality of life will improve or worsen in the future, certain results can be identified at present. On one hand, progress was registered in some basic living conditions such as education, health or access to water and energy. On the other hand, there were deteriorations in the level of cultural identity of the population and in their survival strategies - which is reflected today in the impoverishment of some families and in the feeling, by part of the population, of living as guests and of the new neighbourhood not belonging to them.

Lundas' urbanization in the 20th century was strictly promoted and controlled by the large scale diamond mining companies and the colonial state, shaping the lives of local population and mine workers. This changed radically after independence as civil war and the guerrilla/state competition for resource control materialised in artisanal mining settlements outside the state controlled cities. Other players in the war context helped building the features of new and old towns and cities in the Lundas - artisanal diamond diggers, migrant workers, traders, security and others sorts of services providers. By the end of the war, at least two types of population settlements were dominant in the region - informal mining towns and the 'formal' cities, each one with its own particular features. The former became increasingly unattractive as state investments were channelled to the 'formal' cities and control of informal mining by the state and mining companies became stronger. This paper, grounded on data collected on the field, analyses the roles played by the different actors in the processes of urbanization in the Lundas, discussing their weight and capacity to influence urbanization and how it articulates with the local strategies of the population regarding mining and the search for better living conditions. The article also tries to explore the dynamics of social recomposition and resilience in Angola.

Using the example of Nyabibwe, an artisanal mining centre in the Kalehe territory of in South Kivu (Eastern D.R. Congo), this investigates the complex relationship between mining activities and processes of urbanization in a fragile context of violent conflict.

This analysis is based on ethnographic data collected during different fieldwork visits in Kalehe territory. Nyabibwe's and its cassiterite mines form a fascinating case to study dynamics of mining urbanization, not only in terms of demographic and spatial changes but also in terms of important economic and political transformations.

The evolution of this centre reveals the emergence of particular forms of urbanity, characterized by economic and socio-political opportunities as well as by dynamics of fierce conflict and contestation.

In the context of an extremely fragmented state and a long history of violent conflict in this region, urbanization processes and the boost of local economic activities do not only attract fortune-seekers and economic entrepreneurs, but also displaced people seeking for refuge and security, as well as members of different rebel groups or other state- and non-state armed actors in search for personal benefits. The influence of armed actors in this highly militarized environment has left a strong impact on local power struggles and practices of urban governance.

Starting from the idea that urban centres such as Nyabibwe represent distinctive socio-political and cultural spaces generating distinctive forms of urbanity, this paper will focus both on changing livelihoods as well as changing local power structures.

After a close examination of the bankrupt attempts to industrialize the mining sector made during the Italian colonialism in Eritrea, the paper focuses on the current situation wherein the Eritrean Government makes a point of the mining industry for its national development programs. The aim of the new mining law is to attract investors, and the Government should invest the profits resulting from the gold production in the socio-economic development of the nation. Currently there are about 25 foreign mining and exploration companies active in different areas: downright some places were characterized by artisanal or industrialized mining exploitation during the past, but not so profitable to be continued. In Eritrea the mining companies (junior companies) and the peculiar socio-political scenario (UN sanctions; Warsay-Yikeallo Development Campaign) recommend to procede carefully in the analysis, inasmuch besides the beneficial consequences such as job opportunities, development of marginalized areas, technology and skills improvement, and manpower training; there are negative outcomes due to recruitment of the manpower, the wage system, the distribution of the incomes deriving from the mining exploitation, the risk of monoeconomy that cannot assure the national food security.

In order to describe the connection among the sustainable development in mining industry development, the availability of manpower, the implementation in facilities and urbanization in mining areas, the paper is going to take into account the exploitation of the Eritrean gold fields, because they are considered the most profitable in terms of future incomes, and because of the potential negative effects on the population.

Recent developments has enabled GIS and GPS data to be directly combined with live online satellite mapping imagery within proprietary and open source GIS software and also specialist software such as Google Earth. These have proved to be useful tools for mapping artisanal mine sites and urban change.

This paper demonstrates the benefits gained from using GIS mapping techniques to identify and locate artisanal mining sites; to create random locations for a baseline study of social demographics; and to map migration patterns and urban change in association with the Urbanization and Poverty in Mining Africa (UPIMA) research project in Tanzania.

Much of the literature on African artisanal mining focuses on the circumstances of impoverished miners whereas the popular image of artisanal miners through history has typically portrayed sensationalised boom and bust lifestyles. This paper, using recent qualitative interviews and quantitative survey six gold and diamond mining settlements in Tanzania, probes evidence of artisanal miners' and resident mining settlement households' material wellbeing. Beginning with a consideration of migrants' expectations of wealth during a mineral rush, the paper considers the demographics of surveyed households at the six sites, and their unfolding patterns of settlement and occupational change over time, against the background of the mining cycle and its effect on the evolution of the mining settlement. Looking at households' livelihood responses to post-rush mineral availability, the paper interrogates which households are experiencing economic stress as opposed to enrichment in such economically fluid circumstances. The aim is to contrast impoverishing and wealth-enhancing tendencies, their appearance and influence at different stages of the artisanal mining settlement development cycle and ultimately their impact on mining settlement household welfare generally

There are strong indications that Tanzania is transforming from an agrarian to a mineral-based economy. During recent decades, people have migrated to artisanal mining settlements throughout the country, though nowhere as much as in the gold and diamond fields south of Lake Victoria. Often, their stay in mining towns is temporary; they originate from elsewhere, invest elsewhere, and build and eventually settle down elsewhere. Based on evidence from extensive fieldwork in both recent 'rush-like' and mature artisanal gold and diamond mining settlements, the paper examines residents' priorities and choices related to location of current and permanent residence, and planned retirement as well as how these alter with income levels and as settlements mature, boom or bust. In order to adequately examine this phenomenon, the paper also draws on evidence from recent interviews conducted in the urban metropolises of the gold and diamond fields, notably in Mwanza City, where many successful artisanal miners have decided to retire. The main aim of the paper is to show the multi-locational strategies and trajectories of Tanzania's artisanal miners, hence emphasizing the need for analyses that capture this when researching artisanal mining sites.

Urbanisation, higher incomes, and demographic shifts contribute to changing global consumption patterns. For the African mineral trade, these consumption patterns lead consumer groups in developed countries to demand quality and safety attributes for minerals used in the jewellery trade and in electronic goods. These attributes include the absence of violent conflict or poor labour conditions, and capturing development and environmental benefits through the value chain. One response to this demand has been ethical trade based on voluntary quality control, management and assurance schemes.

For African artisanal miners voluntary assurance schemes for ethical trade enable participation in global value chains and provide access to new segments of the international market. In so doing ethical trade holds potential to contribute to processes of livelihood change, entrepreneurial development and wealth creation that are part of the development of urban mining economies. However, the benefits of ethical trade can also be captured by particular interest groups, with consequences for power and social relations, entry requirements may exclude certain categories of artisanal miner,and development benefits may be tenuous. This paper explores the development issues associated with ethical trade in mineral products and questions what role they play in wealth creation in mining Africa.